Where not prohibited by international law, belligerent reprisals are subject to stringent conditions. State practice establishes this rule as a norm of customary international law applicable in international armed conflicts. Pwboot 302 torrent. A belligerent reprisal consists of an action that would otherwise be unlawful but that in exceptional. Statistics on detected counterfeit kuna and foreign currency banknotes 1 January – 31 December 2011 1.1 Counterfeit kuna banknotes A total of 444 counterfeit kuna banknotes were detected in circulation in the period from January to December 2011, which is an increase of 22% relative to 364 counterfeit kuna banknotes detected in 2010.
State practice establishes this rule as a norm of customary international law applicable in international armed conflicts. A belligerent reprisal consists of an action that would otherwise be unlawful but that in exceptional cases is considered lawful under international law when used as an enforcement measure in reaction to unlawful acts of an adversary. In international humanitarian law there is a trend to outlaw belligerent reprisals altogether. Those that may still be lawful are subject to the stringent conditions set forth below. In the course of the many armed conflicts that have marked the past two decades, belligerent reprisals have not been resorted to as a measure of enforcing international humanitarian law, the main exception being the Iran–Iraq War, where such measures were severely criticized by the UN Security Council and UN Secretary-General (see infra).
The trend towards outlawing reprisals, beyond those already prohibited by the Geneva Conventions, can be seen in a UN General Assembly resolution on basic principles for the protection of civilian populations in armed conflicts adopted in 1970, which stated that “civilian populations, or individual members thereof, should not be the object of reprisals”. The reticence of States to resort to reprisals can be explained by the fact that they are ineffective as a means of enforcement, in particular because reprisals risk leading to an escalation of violations. As stated by Kenya’s LOAC Manual, “reprisals are an unsatisfactory way of enforcing the law. They tend to be used as an excuse for illegal methods of warfare and carry a danger of escalation through repeated reprisals and counter reprisals.” Several other military manuals, as well as other practice, similarly warn of the risk of escalation. Still others underline the limited military advantage gained by using reprisals.
During the negotiation of Additional Protocol I, a number of States asserted that resort to reprisals ought not to be allowed at all. Others stated that they were a very questionable means of securing enforcement. Several States prohibit reprisals altogether. Others state that they may only be taken against combatants and military objectives. There is also national case-law, as well as official statements, to the effect that reprisals must not be inhumane. This requirement was already set forth in the Oxford Manual and recently restated, albeit in different terms, in the Draft Articles on State Responsibility. The reticence to approve of the resort to belligerent reprisals, together with the stringent conditions found in official practice, indicates that the international community is increasingly opposed to the use of violations of international humanitarian law as a method of trying to enforce the law.
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